Saint Peter
By The Christian Portal,
https://www.truechristianity.info/index_english.html
Saint
Peter, also known as Simon Peter, was an early Christian
leader and one of the twelve apostles of Jesus, according to the
New Testament and Christian tradition. Peter is featured prominently
in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles and is
venerated as a saint. The son of John[Jn. 1:42] or of Jonah or Jona,
he was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee
or Gaulanitis. His brother Andrew was also an apostle. Peter is
venerated in multiple churches and is regarded as the Catholic Church's
first pope. He is credited with establishing the church in Antioch
and presiding for seven years as the leader of that city's Christian
community. Either in person or via epistle, his words reached Pontus,
Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia Minor and Bithynia where they were received
by scattered communities of believers: Jews, Hebrew Christians and
gentiles. He then went to Rome where in the second year of Claudius,
it is claimed, he overthrew Simon Magus and held the Sacerdotal
Chair for 25 years.
Two general epistles are ascribed to Peter. The Gospel of Mark
was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peter's preaching
and eyewitness memories. Several other books bearing his name — the
Acts of Peter, Gospel of Peter, Preaching of Peter, Apocalypse of
Peter, and Judgment of Peter — are rejected by the Catholic Church
as apocryphal. According to New Testament accounts, Peter was one
of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples. Originally
a fisherman, he was assigned a leadership role and was with Jesus
during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration.
According to the New Testament, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah,
was part of Jesus' inner circle, walked on water, witnessed Jesus'
transfiguration, denied Jesus, was restored by Jesus, and preached
on the day of Pentecost.
Peter is said to have been crucified under Emperor Nero Augustus
Caesar. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down
at his own request, since he saw himself unworthy to be crucified
in the same way as Jesus Christ. Catholic tradition holds that Saint
Peter's site of crucifixion is located in the Clementine Chapel,
while his mortal bones and remains are contained in the underground
Confessio of St. Peter's Basilica, where Pope Paul VI announced
the excavated discovery of a first-century Roman cemetery in 1968.
Every June 29 since 1969, a statue of Saint Peter has been crowned
in St. Peter's Basilica with a papal tiara, ring of the fisherman,
and papal vestments, as part of the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul.
Names and etymologies
His original name was Shimon or Simeon, Simon in modern English.
He was later given the name Peter, a name derived from the Latin
"Petrus" which is a masculinized form of the feminine
petra (f) which means rock (cf. petroleum). In Greek, the same idea
holds: "Πέτρος (Petros)" is derived from πέτρα (petra).
The Latin word "petra" is a loanword from Greek. He has
also been referred to as Simon Cephas (Greek: Σιμων Κηφᾶς Simōn
Kēphas; Aramaic: Šimʻōn Kêfâ; Syriac: ܫܶܡܥܽܘܢ ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ Sëmʻān
Kêfâ), after his name in Hellenised Aramaic.
The English and German "Peter", the French "Pierre",
the Italian "Pietro", the Spanish and Portuguese "Pedro",
the Polish and Russian "Piotr" are derived from "Petrus".
The pun with "rock" also works in Italian (pietra (f)),
French (pierre (f)) and Portuguese (pedra (f)).
The Syriac or Aramaic word for "rock" is cephas, which
became Greek: Πέτρος, also meaning "rock". He is also
known as Simon Peter, Cephas (Greek: Κηφᾶς) and Kepha (Hebrew: כיפא).
Both Cephas and Kepha also mean rock.
However, the Catholic theologian Rudolf Pesch argues that the Aramaic
cepha means "stone, ball, clump, clew" and that "rock"
is only a connotation; that the Greek petra denotes "grown
rock, rocky range, cliff, grotto"; and that petros means "small
stone, firestone, sling stone, moving boulder".
New Testament account
Peter's life story is told in the four Canonical Gospels, The Book
of Acts, New Testament Letters, Non-Canonical Gospel According to
the Hebrews and other Early Church accounts of his life and death.
In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called
during Jesus' ministry. It was during his first meeting with Jesus
that Jesus named him Peter. Peter was to become the first Apostle
ordained by Jesus in the early church.
Ruins of ancient Capernaum on north
side of the Sea of Galilee.
A Franciscan church is built upon the traditional site of Apostle
Peter's house.
Peter ran a fishing business in Bethsaida.[Jn. 1:44] He was named
Simon, son of Jonah or John. The Synoptic Gospels all recount how
Peter's mother-in-law was healed by Jesus at their home in Capernaum[Matt.
8:14-17] [Mk. 1:29-31] [Lk. 4:38] which, coupled with 1 Cor. 9:5,
clearly depict Peter as married man. His wife is known in the East
as Febronia and her feast is celebrated on June 28. In the Synoptic
Gospels, Peter (then Simon) was a fisherman along with his brother
Andrew and the sons of Zebedee, James and John. The Gospel of John
also depicts Peter fishing, even after the resurrection of Jesus,
in the story of the Catch of 153 fish. In Matthew and Mark, Jesus
called Simon and his brother Andrew to be "fishers of men".
In Luke, Simon Peter owns the boat that Jesus uses to preach to
the multitudes who were pressing on him at the shore of Lake Gennesaret.[Lk.
5:3] Jesus then amazes Simon and his companions James and John (Andrew
is not mentioned) by telling them to lower their nets, whereupon
they catch a huge number of fish. Immediately after this, they follow
him.[Lk. 5:4-11] The Gospel of John gives a comparable account of
"The First Disciples".[Jn. 1:35-42] In John, we are told
that it was two disciples of John the Baptist (Andrew and an unnamed
disciple) who heard John the Baptist announce Jesus as the "Lamb
of God" and then followed Jesus. Andrew then went and fetched
his brother Simon, saying, "We have found the Messiah",
and then brought Simon to Jesus.
Three of the four canonical Gospels – Matthew, Mark and John –
recount the story of Jesus walking on water. Matthew additionally
describes Peter walking on water for a moment, but beginning to
sink when his faith wavered.[Matt. 14:28-31]
At the beginning of the Last Supper, Jesus washed his disciples'
feet. Peter initially refused to let Jesus wash his feet, but when
Jesus responded: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with
me", Peter replied: "Lord, not my feet only, but also
my hands and my head".[Jn. 13:2-11] The washing of feet is
often repeated in the service of worship on Maundy Thursday by some
Christian denominations.
The three Synoptic Gospels all mention that, when Jesus was arrested,
one of his companions cut off the ear of a servant of the High Priest.
The Gospel of John also includes this event and names Peter as the
swordsman and Malchus as the victim.[Jn. 18:10] Luke adds that Jesus
touched the ear and miraculously healed it.[Lk. 22:49-51] This healing
of the servant's ear is the last of the 37 miracles attributed to
Jesus in the Bible.
The "Rock" dialogue
In a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples (Matthew 16:13-20),
Jesus asks, "Who do people say that the Son of Man is?"
The disciples give various answers. When he asks, "Who do you
say that I am?" Simon Peter answers, "You are the Christ,
the Son of the living God." In turn, Jesus declares Peter to
be "blessed" for having recognized Jesus' true identity
and attributes this recognition to a divine revelation. Then Jesus
addresses Simon by what seems to have been the nickname "Peter"
(Cephas in Aramaic, Petros [stone] in Greek) and says, "On
this rock (petra in Greek) I will build my church, and the gates
of Hell will not prevail against it."
Apostle Peter striking the High Priests'
servant Malchus with a sword in the Garden of Gethsemane.
A common exegetical interpretation of Peter is provided by Daniel
Harrington who suggests that Peter was an unlikely symbol of stability.
While he was one of the first disciples called and served as the
spokesman for the group, Peter is also the exemplar of "little
faith" in Matthew 14, will soon have Jesus say to him, "O
you of little faith, why did you doubt?" and will eventually
deny Jesus three times. In light of the Easter event, then, Peter
became an exemplar of the forgiven sinner. A great variance of opinions
exists as to the interpretation of this passage with respect to
what authority and responsibility, if any, Jesus was giving to Peter.
Petros had not previously been used as a name, but in the Greek-speaking
world it became a popular Christian name, after the tradition of
Peter's prominence in the early Christian church had been established.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church this passage is interpreted as not
implying a special prominence to the person of Peter, but to Peter's
position as representative of the Apostles. The word used for "rock"
(petra) grammatically refers to "a small detachment of the
massive ledge", not to a massive boulder. Thus, Orthodox Sacred
Tradition understands Jesus' words as referring to the apostolic
faith.
The great majority of Western scholars concur with the interpretation
that the "rock" was Peter, not Jesus himself or Peter's
faith.
Denial of Jesus by Peter
All four canonical gospels recount that, during the Last Supper,
Jesus foretold that Peter would deny him three times before the
following cockcrow ("before the cock crows twice" in Mark's
account).
The three Synoptics and John describe the three denials as follows:
- A denial when a female servant of the high priest spots Simon
Peter, saying that he had been with Jesus. According to Mark (but
not in all manuscripts), "the rooster crowed". Only
Luke and John mention a fire by which Peter was warming himself
among other people: according to Luke, Peter was "sitting";
according to John, he was "standing".
- A denial when Simon Peter had gone out to the gateway, away
from the firelight, but the same servant girl (Mark) or another
servant girl (Matthew) or a man (Luke and also John, for whom,
though, this is the third denial) told the bystanders he was a
follower of Jesus. According to John, "the rooster crowed".
- A denial came when Peter's Galilean accent was taken as proof
that he was indeed a disciple of Jesus. According to Matthew,
Mark and Luke, "the rooster crowed". John, though, does
not mention the Galilean accent.
The Denial of Saint Peter, by Caravaggio
Matthew adds that it was his accent that gave him away as coming
from Galilee. Luke deviates slightly from this by stating that,
rather than a crowd accusing Simon Peter, it was a third individual.
The Gospel of John places the second denial while Peter was still
warming himself at the fire, and gives as the occasion of the third
denial a claim by someone to have seen him in the garden of Gethsemane
when Jesus was arrested.
In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus' prediction of Peter's denial is coupled
with a prediction that all the apostles ("you", plural)
would be "sifted like wheat", but that it would be Peter's
task ("you", singular), when he had turned again, to strengthen
his brethren.
In a reminiscent scene in John's epilogue, Peter affirms three
times that he loves Jesus.
Resurrection appearances
In John's gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the empty
tomb, although the women and the beloved disciple see it before
him.[Jn. 20:1-9] In Luke's account, the women's report of the empty
tomb is dismissed by the apostles, and Peter is the only one who
goes to check for himself. In fact, he runs to the tomb. After seeing
the graveclothes he goes home, apparently without informing the
other disciples.[Lk. 24:1-12]
Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians contains a list of resurrection
appearances of Jesus, the first of which is an appearance to Peter.
Here Paul apparently follows an early tradition that Peter was the
first to see the risen Christ, which however did not seem to have
survived to the time when the Gospels were written.
In the final chapter of the Gospel of John, Peter, in one of the
resurrection appearances of Jesus, three times affirmed his love
for Jesus, balancing his threefold denial, and Jesus reconfirmed
Peter's position.
Position among the apostles
Peter is listed first among the Twelve Apostles in the canonical
gospels and in the Book of Acts (Acts 1:13). He is also frequently
mentioned in the Gospels as forming with James the Elder and John
a special group within the Twelve Apostles, present at incidents
at which the others were not present, such as at the Transfiguration
of Jesus. He often confesses his faith in Jesus as the Messiah.
Church of the Primacy of St. Peter on
the Sea of Galilee.
Traditional site where Jesus Christ appeared to his disciples after
his resurrection and,
according to Catholic tradition, established Peter's supreme jurisdiction
over the Christian church.
Peter is often depicted in the Gospels as spokesman of all the
Apostles. Catholics refer to him as chief of the Apostles, as do
the Eastern Orthodox and the Oriental Orthodox. In Coptic Orthodox
Church Liturgy, he is once referred to as "Prominent"
or "head" among the Apostles, a title shared with St.
Paul in the text (The Fraction of Fast and Feast of the Apostles
Peter and Paul in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria). Some,
including the Orthodox Churches, believe this is not the same as
saying that the other Apostles were under Peter's orders. In contrast,
Jewish Christians are said to have argued that James the Just was
the leader of the group. Some argue James was the Patriarch of Jerusalem
and that this position at times gave him privilege in some (but
not all) situations. The early Church historian Eusebius (c. AD
325) records Clement of Alexandria (c. AD 190) as saying,
"For they say that Peter and James and John after the
ascension of our Saviour, as if also preferred by our Lord, strove
not after honor, but chose James the Just bishop of Jerusalem."
Paul affirms that Peter had the special charge of being apostle
to the Jews, just as he, Paul, was apostle to the Gentiles.
Role in the early church
The author of the Acts of the Apostles portrays Peter as an extremely
important figure within the early Christian community, with Peter
delivering a significant open-air sermon during Pentecost. According
to the same book, Peter took the lead in selecting a replacement
for Judas Iscariot.[Acts 1:15] He was twice arraigned, with John,
before the Sanhedrin and directly defied them.[Acts 4:7-22] [5:18-42]
He undertook a missionary journey to Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea,[9:32-10:2]
becoming instrumental in the decision to evangelise the Gentiles.
St. Peter Preaching in the Presence
of St Mark by Fra Angelico
About halfway through, the Acts of the Apostles turns its attention
away from Peter and to the activities of Paul, and the Bible is
mostly silent on what occurred to Peter afterwards.
John Vidmar writes:
"Both Catholic and Protestant scholars agree that Peter
had an authority that superseded that of the other apostles. Peter
is their spokesman at several events, he conducts the election
of Matthias, his opinion in the debate over converting Gentiles
was crucial, etc.
Acts 12 tells how Peter was put into prison by King Herod, but
was rescued by an angel.
The Liberation of St. Peter by Gerard
van Honthorst
At the Council of Jerusalem (c. 50), the early Church, Paul and
the leaders of the Jerusalem church met and decided to embrace Gentile
converts. Acts portrays Peter as successfully opposing the Christian
Pharisees who insisted on circumcision.
Epistles
Peter/Cephas is mentioned briefly in Paul's Epistle to the Galatians,
which mentions a trip by Paul to Jerusalem where he meets Peter
(Galatians 1:18), and a trip by Cephas to Antioch[Gal. 2:11-14]
where Paul rebuked him for treating Gentile converts as inferior
to Jewish Christian (see the Incident at Antioch). Galatians is
accepted as authentic by almost all scholars, so these are the earliest
mentions of Peter to be written.
Church tradition ascribes the epistles First and Second Peter to
Apostle Peter, as does the text of Second Peter itself. First Peter
implies the author is in "Babylon," which has been held
to be a coded reference to Rome (1 Peter 5:13). Although, Babylon
was an important fortress city in Egypt, just north of today's Cairo
and this fact is combined with the "greetings from Marc"
(1 Peter 5:13), who is regarded as founder of the Church of Alexandria
(Egypt); thus other scholars put the First Peter epistle to be written
in Egypt. Some[who?] scholars regard First Peter as not authored
by him, and there is still considerable debate about the Petrine
authorship of Second Peter. However the Greek in both books is similar,
and the early Church was adamantly opposed to pseudographical authorship.
Accounts outside the New Testament
In Catholic tradition, Peter is said to have founded the church
in Rome with Paul, served as its bishop, authored two epistles,
and then met martyrdom there along with Paul.
Antioch and Corinth
Later accounts expand on the brief Biblical mention of his visit
to Antioch. The Liber Pontificalis (9th century) mentions Peter
as having served as bishop of Antioch for seven years and having
potentially left his family in the Greek city before his journey
to Rome. Claims of direct blood lineage from Simon Peter among the
old population of Antioch existed in the 1st century and continue
to exist today, notably by certain Semaan families of modern-day
Syria and Lebanon. Historians have furnished other evidence of Peter's
sojourn in Antioch. Subsequent tradition held that Peter had been
the first Patriarch of Antioch.
Peter might have visited Corinth, as a party of "Cephas"
existed there.
Eusebius of Caesarea (Eusebius Caesariensis, ca 260-ca 340), in
his "Historia Ecclesiastica", while naming some of the
Seventy Disciples of Jesus, says:
"... and the history by Clement (of Alexandria, c.150
- c. 215), in the fifth (chapter) of Hypotyposeis; in which Cefas,
the one mentioned by Paul (in the citation): «when Cefas came
to Antioch, I confronted him face to face» (Galatians 2:11), it
is said he was one of the Seventy Disciples, having the same name
with Peter the Apostle".
Death
In the epilogue of the Gospel of John, Jesus hints at the death
by which Peter would glorify God,[Jn. 21:18-19]saying "…when
you are old you will stretch out your hands, and another will dress
you and take you where you do not want to go." This is interpreted
by some as a reference to Peter's crucifixion.
According to the 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia, St. Peter labored
in Rome during the last portion of his life, and there ended his
life by martyrdom. The death of St. Peter is attested to by Tertullian
at the end of the 2nd century, and by Origen in Eusebius, Church
History III.1. Origen wrote: "Peter was crucified at Rome with
his head downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer." This
is why an upside down cross is generally accepted as a symbol of
Peter, who would not have considered himself worthy enough to die
the same way as his Savior.
Status
St. Clement of Rome identifies Peter and Paul as the outstanding
heroes of the faith. Papias reported that the Gospel of Mark was
based on Peter's memoirs, a tradition still accepted by some scholars
today.
Martyrdom
The mention in the New Testament of the death of Peter says that
Jesus indicated its form by saying: "You will stretch out your
hands, and someone else will dress you and lead you where you do
not want to go." Early church tradition (as indicated below)
says Peter probably died by crucifixion (with arms outstretched)
at the time of the Great Fire of Rome of the year 64. Margherita
Guarducci, who led the research leading to the rediscovery of Peter's
reputed tomb in its last stages (1963–1968), concludes Peter died
on 13 October AD 64 during the festivities on the occasion of the
"dies imperii" of Emperor Nero. This took place three
months after the disastrous fire that destroyed Rome for which the
emperor wished to blame the Christians. This "dies imperii"
(regnal day anniversary) was an important one, exactly ten years
after Nero ascended to the throne, and it was 'as usual' accompanied
by much bloodshed. Traditionally, Roman authorities sentenced him
to death by crucifixion. According to the apocryphal Acts of Peter,
he was crucified head down. Tradition also locates his burial place
where the Basilica of Saint Peter was later built, directly beneath
the Basilica's high altar.
Caravaggio's depiction of the crucifixion
of Apostle Peter.
Clement of Rome, in his Letter to the Corinthians (Chapter 5),
written c. 80–98, speaks of Peter's martyrdom in the following terms:
"Let us take the noble examples of our own generation. Through
jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church
were persecuted, and came even unto death… Peter, through unjust
envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having
delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to
him."
The apocryphal Acts of Peter is also thought to be the source for
the tradition about the famous phrase "Quo vadis, Domine?"
(or "Pou Hupageis, Kurie?" which means, "Where are
you going, Master?"). According to the story, Peter, fleeing
Rome to avoid execution, asked the question of a vision of Jesus,
to which Jesus allegedly responded that he was "going to Rome
to be crucified again." On hearing this, Peter decided to return
to the city to accept martyrdom. This story is commemorated in an
Annibale Carracci painting. The Church of Quo Vadis, near the Catacombs
of Saint Callistus, contains a stone in which Jesus' footprints
from this event are supposedly preserved, though this was apparently
an ex-voto from a pilgrim, and indeed a copy of the original, housed
in the Basilica of St Sebastian.
The ancient historian Josephus describes how Roman soldiers would
amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions,
and it is likely that this would have been known to the author of
the Acts of Peter. The position attributed to Peter's crucifixion
is thus plausible, either as having happened historically or as
being an invention by the author of the Acts of Peter. Death, after
crucifixion head down, is unlikely to be caused by suffocation,
the usual "cause of death in ordinary crucifixion".
A medieval tradition was that the Mamertine Prison in Rome is the
place where Peter was imprisoned before his execution. Catholic
tradition holds that his inverted crucifixion occurred on the spot
now occupied by the Clementine Chapel in the grottoes of Saint Peter's
Basilica. In 1950, human bones were found buried underneath the
altar of St. Peter's Basilica. The bones have been claimed by many
to have been those of Peter. An attempt to contradict these claims
was made in 1953 by the excavation of what some believe to be St
Peter's tomb in Jerusalem. However along with supposed tomb of Peter
bearing his previous name Simon, tombs bearing the names of Jesus,
Mary, James, John, and the rest of the apostles were also found
at the same excavation — though all these names were very common among
Jews at the time.
In the 1960s, some previously discarded debris from the excavations
beneath St Peter's Basilica were re-examined, and the bones of a
male person were identified. A forensic examination found them to
be a male of about 61 years of age from the 1st century. This caused
Pope Paul VI in 1968 to announce them most likely to be the relics
of Apostle Peter.
Further doubt on finding bones in Rome is cast by Pope Vitalian's
letter to King Oswy of the Britons (665 AD), offering him the remains
(then called relics) of the apostle Peter and Paul, along with those
of the Holy Martyrs Laurentius, John, Gregory and Pancratius as
a reward for the emergence of British faith.
Connection to Rome
The See of Rome is traditionally said to be founded by Peter and
Paul, see also Primacy of Simon Peter, who had invested it with
apostolic authority. The New Testament says nothing directly about
Peter's connection to Rome, but an early Catholic tradition supports
such a connection.
St. Peter's Basilica, believed to be
the burial site of St. Peter, seen from the River Tiber.
The iconic dome dominates the skyline of Rome.
That Peter was bishop of Rome is corroborated by both positive
and negative evidence. However, some historians have challenged
this traditional view of Peter's role in the early Roman Church.
Still, most Catholic and Protestant scholars, and many scholars
in general, conclude that Peter was indeed martyred in Rome under
Nero. In 2009 Otto Zwierlein (de) concluded in a critical study
that "there is not a single piece of reliable literary evidence
(and no archaeological evidence either) that Peter ever was in Rome."
1 Clement, a document that has been dated from the 90s to the 120s,
is one of the earliest sources adduced in support of Peter's stay
in Rome, but questions have been raised about the text's authenticity
and whether it has any knowledge about Peter's life beyond what
is contained in the New Testament Acts. The Letter to the Romans
attributed to St. Ignatius of Antioch implies that Peter and Paul
had special authority over the Roman church, telling the Roman Christians:
"I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did" (ch. 4).
However, the authenticity of this document and its traditional dating
to c. 105–10 have also been questioned, and it may date from the
final decades of the 2nd century.
Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls,
believed to be the burial site of St. Paul.
Later in the 2nd century, Irenaeus of Lyons believed that Peter
and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed
Linus as bishop. In Against Heresies (Book III, Chapter III, paragraphs
2–3), Irenaeus wrote:
Since, however, it would be too long to enumerate in such
a volume as this the succession of all the churches, we shall
confound all those who, in whatever manner, whether through self-satisfaction
or vainglory, or through blindness and wicked opinion, assemble
other than where it is proper, by pointing out here the successions
of the bishops of the greatest and most ancient church known to
all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles,
Peter and Paul, that church which has the tradition and the faith
which comes down to us after having been announced to men by the
apostles. With that church, because of its superior origin, all
the churches must agree, that is, all the faithful in the whole
world, and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained
the apostolic tradition.
The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up
the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the
episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles
to Timothy. To him succeeded Anacletus; and after him, in the
third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric.
This man, as he had seen the blessed apostles, and had been conversant
with them, might be said to have the preaching of the apostles
still echoing [in his ears], and their traditions before his eyes.
Nor was he alone [in this], for there were many still remaining
who had received instructions from the apostles. In the time of
this Clement, no small dissension having occurred among the brethren
at Corinth, the Church in Rome dispatched a most powerful letter
to the Corinthians, exhorting them to peace, renewing their faith,
and declaring the tradition which it had lately received from
the apostles…
Tertullian also writes: "But if you are near Italy, you have
Rome, where authority is at hand for us too. What a happy church
that is, on which the apostles poured out their whole doctrine with
their blood; where Peter had a passion like that of the Lord, where
Paul was crowned with the death of John (the Baptist, by being beheaded)."
Dionysius of Corinth also serves as a late 2nd-century witness to
the tradition. He wrote: "You (Pope Soter) have also, by your
very admonition, brought together the planting that was made by
Peter and Paul at Rome and at Corinth; for both of them alike planted
in our Corinth and taught us; and both alike, teaching similarly
in Italy, suffered martyrdom at the same time". Later tradition,
first found in Saint Jerome, attributes to Peter a 25-year episcopate
(or apostolate) in Rome.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, there was a Christian community
at Rome before either Peter or Paul arrived there:
Even on the Day of Pentecost, "Roman strangers"
(advenœ Romani, Acts 2:10) were present at Jerusalem, and they
surely must have carried the good news to their fellow-citizens
at Rome… according to the pseudo-Clementine Epistles, St. Barnabas
was the first to preach the Gospel in the Eternal City.
Paul's Epistle to the Romans 16 (c. 58) attests to a large Christian
community already there, although he does not mention Peter.
Non-canonical sayings of Peter
Two sayings are attributed to Peter in the gnostic Gospel of Thomas.
In the first, Peter compares Jesus to a "just messenger."
In the second, Peter asks Jesus to "make Mary leave us, for
females don't deserve life,"
In the Apocalypse of Peter, Peter holds a dialogue with Jesus about
the parable of the fig tree and the fate of sinners.
In the Gospel of Mary, whose text is largely fragmented, Peter
appears to be jealous of "Mary" (probably Mary Magdalene).
He says to the other disciples, "Did He really speak privately
with a woman and not openly to us? Are we to turn about and all
listen to her? Did He prefer her to us?" In reply to this,
Levi says "Peter, you have always been hot tempered."
Other noncanonical texts that attribute sayings to Peter include
the Secret Book of James and the Acts of Peter.
Denial of Jesus
In the Fayyum Fragment of the end of the 3rd century, Jesus predicts
that Peter will deny him three times before a cock crows (on the
following morning). The account is similar to that of the canonical
gospels, especially the Gospel of Mark, either an abbreviation of
the account in the Synoptics or a source text on which they were
based.
Post-Jesus
The fragmentary Gospel of Peter, attributed to Peter, contains
an account of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the
canonical gospels. It contains little information about Peter himself,
except that after the discovery of the empty tomb, "I, Simon
Peter, and Andrew my brother, took our fishing nets and went to
the sea."
19th century
Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism, recorded in multiple revelations
that Peter appeared to him and Oliver Cowdery in 1829 in order to
bestow the apostleship and keys of the kingdom as part of a restoration
of priesthood authority.
Religious interpretations
Catholic Church
According to Catholic belief, Peter was the first Bishop of Rome
and chief pastor of the entire Catholic Church — the Vicar of Christ
upon Earth. Although Peter never bore the title of "Pope",
or "Vicar of Christ", the Catholic Church believes him
to be the first Pope. Therefore, they consider every pope to be
Peter's successor and the rightful superior of all other bishops.
Saint Peter the Apostle
The Catholic Church's recognition of Peter as head of its church
on Earth (with Christ being its heavenly head) is based on its interpretation
of two passages from the Canonical Gospels of the New Testament;
as well as Sacred Tradition. The first passage is John 21:15-17
which is: "Feed my lambs, feed my lambs, feed my sheep"
(within the Greek it is Ποίμαινε i.e., to feed and rule [as a Shepherd].,
v. 16 while Βόσκε i.e., to feed., for v.15 & v. 17) — which is
seen by Catholics as Christ promising the spiritual supremacy to
Peter. The Catholic Encyclopedia sees in this passage Jesus "charging
[Peter] with the superintendency of all his sheep, without exception;
and consequently of his whole flock, that is, of his own church".
The second passage is Matthew 16:17-20:
I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my
church, and the gates of Hell will not overcome it. I will give
you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth
will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be
loosed in heaven".
Christ spoke here in the Syriac tongue, hence:
ܐܳܦ݂ ܐܶܢܳܐ ܐܳܡܰܪ ܐ݈ܢܳܐ ܠܳܟ݂ ܕ݁ܰܐܢ݈ܬ݁ ܗ݈ܽܘ ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ ܘܥܰܠ ܗܳܕ݂ܶܐ
ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ ܐܶܒ݂ܢܶܝܗ ܠܥܺܕ݈݁ܬ݁ܝ ܘܬ݂ܰܪܥܶܐ ܕ݁ܰܫܝܽܘܠ ܠܳܐ ܢܶܚܣܢܽܘܢܳܗ܂
— (Peshitta) ܡܬܝ ܝܘ. ܝܚ - ܟ
also I say I to you that you are Keepa (Cephah) and on this Keepa
(Cephah) I will build my Church and the gates of Sheol not will
subdue it.
Thou art a rock, and upon this rock: or, Thou art Peter, and upon
this peter will I build my Church:
Pétrus (Πέτρος) and pétra (πέτρᾳ) are the Greek equivalent to the
Syriac Cephah (ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ) which means "rock", and there
is no difference at all between Pétrus and pétra.
To better understand what Christ meant, St. Basil elaborates:
Though Peter be a rock, yet he is not a rock as Christ is. For
Christ is the true unmoveable rock of himself, Peter is unmoveable
by Christ the rock. For Jesus doth communicate and impart his dignities,
not voiding himself of them, but holding them to himself, bestoweth
them also upon others. He is the light, and yet 2. You are the light:
he is the Priest, and yet he 3. maketh Priests: he is the rock,
and he made a rock.
In reference to Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle,
the popes wear the Fisherman's Ring, which bears an image of the
saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol
of the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of
Heaven" promised to Peter.[Matt. 16:18-19] The terminology
of this "commission" of Peter is unmistakably parallel
to the commissioning of Eliakim ben Hilkiah in Isaiah 22:15-23.
Peter is often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art
holding a key or a set of keys.
Though the authenticity of this account has been challenged, the
general consensus is that these are Jesus' words.
Feast days
The Roman Martyrology assigns 29 June as the feast day of both
Peter and Paul, without thereby declaring that to be the day of
their deaths. St. Augustine of Hippo says in his Sermon 295: "One
day is assigned for the celebration of the martyrdom of the two
apostles. But those two were one. Although their martyrdom occurred
on different days, they were one."
Looking down into the confessio near
the tomb of Apostle Peter, Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome.
This is also the feast of both Apostles in the calendar of the
Eastern Orthodox Church.
In the Roman Rite, the feast of the Chair of Saint Peter is celebrated
on 22 February, and the anniversary of the dedication of the two
papal basilicas of Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's outside the Walls
is held on 18 November.
Before Pope John XXIII's revision in 1960, the Roman Calendar also
included on 18 January another feast of the Chair of Saint Peter
(denominated the Chair of Saint Peter in Rome, while the February
feast was then called that of the Chair of Saint Peter at Antioch),
and on 1 August the feast of Saint Peter in Chains.
St. Peter's Basilica
In the early 4th century, the Emperor Constantine I decided to
honour Peter with a large basilica. Because the precise location
of Peter's burial was so firmly fixed in the belief of the Christians
of Rome, the church to house the basilica had to be erected on a
site that was not convenient to construction. The slope of the Vatican
Hill had to be excavated, even though the church could much more
easily have been built on level ground only slightly to the south.
There were also moral and legal issues, such as demolishing a cemetery
to make room for the building. The focal point of the Basilica,
both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction,
is the altar located over what is said to be the point of Peter's
burial.
Protestants and other views
A major debate between Catholics and Protestants centers on Matthew
16:18 where Jesus tells Peter: "You are Peter, and on this
rock I will build my Church..." Catholics interpret the verse
as saying that Jesus would build his church on Peter, the apostle.
The traditional Catholic interpretation has been that Jesus told
Peter (Rock) that he would build his Church on this Rock (Peter),
and that Peter was made the shepherd of the apostolic flock[Jn 21:15-19] — hence
their assertion of the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff.
Meaning of "Rock"
In the original Greek the word translated as "Peter"
is Πέτρος (Petros) and that translated as "rock" is πέτρα
(petra), two words that, while not identical, give an impression
of one of many times when Jesus used a play on words. Furthermore,
since Jesus presumably spoke to Peter in their native Aramaic language,
he would have used kepha in both instances. The Peshitta Text and
the Old Syriac text use the word "kepha" for both "Peter"
and "rock" in Matthew 16:18. John 1:42 says Jesus called
Simon "Cephas", as does Paul in some letters. He was instructed
by Christ to strengthen his brethren, i.e., the apostles.[Lk 22:31-32]
Peter also had a leadership role in the early Christian church at
Jerusalem according to The Acts of the Apostles chapters 1–2, 10–11,
and 15.
Early Catholic Latin and Greek writers (such as St. John Chrysostom)
considered the "foundation rock" as applying to both Peter
personally and his confession of faith (or the faith of his confession)
symbolically, as well as seeing Christ's promise to apply more generally
to his twelve apostles and the Church at large. This "double
meaning" interpretation is present in the current Catechism
of the Catholic Church.
Protestant counter-claims to the Catholic interpretation are largely
based on the difference between the Greek words translated "Rock"
in the Matthean passage. In classical Attic Greek petros (masculine)
generally meant "pebble," while petra (feminine) meant
"boulder" or "cliff." Accordingly, taking Peter's
name to mean "pebble," they argue that the "rock"
in question cannot have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus
himself, or the faith in Jesus that Peter had just professed. However,
the New Testament was written in Koiné Greek, not Attic Greek, and
some authorities say no significant difference existed between the
meanings of petros and petra.
Christ Handing the Keys to St Peter,
by Pietro Perugino (1481–82)
However, even though the feminine noun petra is translated as rock
in the phrase "on this rock I will build my church," the
word petra (πέτρα in Greek) is also used at 1 Cor. 10:4 in describing
Jesus Christ, which reads: "They all ate the same spiritual
food and drank the same spiritual drink; for they drank from the
spiritual rock that accompanied them, and that rock was Christ."
Although Matthew 16 is used as a primary proof-text for the Catholic
doctrine of Papal supremacy, Protestant scholars say that prior
to the Reformation of the 16th century, Matthew 16 was very rarely
used to support papal claims. Their position is that most of the
early and medieval Church interpreted the 'rock' as being a reference
either to Christ or to Peter's faith, not Peter himself. They understand
Jesus' remark to have been his affirmation of Peter's testimony
that Jesus was the Son of God.
Despite this claim, many Fathers saw a connection between Matthew
16:18 and the primacy of Peter and his office, such as Tertullian,
writing: the Lord said to Peter, 'On this rock I will build my Church,
I have given you the keys of the kingdom of heaven [and] whatever
you shall have bound or loosed on earth will be bound or loosed
in heaven' [Matt. 16:18–19]. . . . Upon you, he says, I will build
my Church; and I will give to you the keys, not to the Church.
Other theologically conservative Christians, including Confessional
Lutherans, also rebut comments made by Karl Keating and D.A. Carson
who claim that there is no distinction between the words petros
and petra in Koine Greek. The Lutheran theologians state that the
dictionaries of Koine/NT Greek, including the authoritative Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich
Lexicon, indeed list both words and the passages that give different
meanings for each. The Lutheran theologians further note that:
We honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after
him, but he was not the first pope, nor was he Roman Catholic. If
you read his first letter, you will see that he did not teach a
Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians are royal priests. The
same keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the whole church
of believers in Matthew 18.
Partial Protestant support
Partial support for the Catholic position comes from one of Protestantism's
most distinguished Church historians, Oscar Cullmann, a Lutheran
theologian. He disagrees with Luther and the Protestant reformers
who held that by "rock" Christ did not mean Peter, but
meant either himself or the faith of His followers. He believes
the meaning of the original Aramaic is very clear: that "Kepha"
was the Aramaic word for "rock", and that it was also
the name by which Christ called Peter.
Yet, Cullmann sharply rejects the Catholic claim that Peter began
the papal succession. He writes: "In the life of Peter there
is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership
of the church at large." While he believes the Matthew text
is entirely valid and is in no way spurious, he says it cannot be
used as "warrant of the papal succession."
Cullmann concludes that while Peter was the original head of the
apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession.
There are other Protestant scholars who also partially defend the
historical Catholic position about "Rock." Taking a somewhat
different approach from Cullman, they point out that the Gospel
of Matthew was not written in the classical Attic form of Greek,
but in the Hellenistic Koine dialect in which there is no distinction
in meaning between petros and petra. Moreover, even in Attic Greek,
in which the regular meaning of petros was a smallish "stone,"
there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as in Sophocles,
Oedipus at Colonus v. 1595, where petros refers to a boulder used
as a landmark, obviously something more than a pebble. In any case,
a petros/petra distinction is irrelevant considering the Aramaic
language in which the phrase might well have been spoken. In Greek,
of any period, the feminine noun petra could not be used as the
given name of a male, which may explain the use of Petros as the
Greek word with which to translate Aramaic Kepha.
Yet, still other Protestant scholars believe that Jesus in fact
did mean to single out Peter as the very rock which he will build
upon, but that the passage does nothing to indicate a continued
succession of Peter's implied position. They assert that Matthew
uses the demonstrative pronoun taute, which allegedly means "this
very" or this same, when he refers to the rock on which Jesus'
church will be built. He also uses the Greek word for "and",
kai. It is alleged that when a demonstrative pronoun is used with
kai, the pronoun refers back to the preceding noun. The second rock
Jesus refers to must then be the same rock as the first one; and
if Peter is the first rock he must also be the second.
Eastern Orthodox
The Eastern Orthodox Church regards Apostle Peter, together with
Apostle Paul, as "Preeminent Apostles". Another title
used for Peter is Coryphaeus, which could be translated as "Choir-director",
or lead singer. The church recognizes Apostle Peter's leadership
role in the early church, especially in the very early days at Jerusalem,
but does not consider him to have had any "princely" role
over his fellow Apostles.
Icon of St. Peter (15th century, Russian
State Museum, Saint Petersburg).
The New Testament is not seen by the Orthodox as supporting any
extraordinary authority for Peter with regard to faith or morals.
The Orthodox also hold that Peter did not act as leader at the Council
of Jerusalem, but as merely one of a number who spoke. The final
decision regarding the non-necessity of circumcision (and certain
prohibitions) was spelled out by James, the Brother of the Lord
(though Catholics hold James merely reiterated and fleshed out what
Peter had said, regarding the latter's earlier divine revelation
regarding the inclusion of Gentiles).
Eastern and Oriental Orthodox do not recognize the Bishop of Rome
as the successor of St. Peter but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
sends a delegation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration
of the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul. In the Ravenna Document of
13 October 2007, the representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church
agreed that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according
to the phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue),
occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome
was therefore the protos among the patriarchs, if the Papacy unites
with the Orthodox Church. They disagree, however, on the interpretation
of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives
of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood
in different ways in the first millennium."
With regard to Jesus' words to Peter, "Thou art Peter and
upon this rock I will build my church", the Orthodox hold Christ
is referring to the confession of faith, not the person of Peter
as that upon which he will build the church. This is allegedly shown
by the fact that the original Greek uses the feminine demonstrative
pronoun when he says "upon this rock" (ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ);
whereas, grammatically, if he had been referring to Peter, he would
allegedly have used the masculine. This "gender distinction"
argument is also held by some Protestants.
Feast days
In the Orthodox Daily Office every Thursday throughout the year
is dedicated to the Holy Apostles, including St. Peter. There are
also two feast days in the year which are dedicated to him:
- June 29, Feast of Saints Peter and Paul — This is a major feast
day and is preceded by a period of Lenten fasting known as the
Apostles' Fast
- January 16, Veneration of the Precious Chains of the Holy and
All-Glorious Apostle Peter — commemorating both the chains which
Acts 12:1-11 says miraculously fell from him, and the chains in
which he was held before his martyrdom by Nero.
Syriac Orthodox Church
The Fathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church tried to give a theological
interpretation to the primacy of Apostle Peter. They were fully
convinced of the unique office of Peter in the primitive Christian
community. Ephrem, Aphrahat and Maruthas who were supposed to be
the best exponents of the early Syriac tradition unequivocally acknowledge
the office of Peter.
The Syriac Fathers following the rabbinic tradition call Jesus
"Kepha" for they see "rock" in the Old Testament
as a messianic Symbol (yet the Old Maronite Syriacs of Lebanon still
refer at Saint Peter as "Saint Simon the Generous" or
Simon Karam") . When Christ gave his own name "Kepha"
to Simon he was giving him participation in the person and office
of Christ. Christ who is the Kepha and shepherd made Simon the chief
shepherd in his place and gave him the very name Kepha and said
that on Kepha he would build the Church. Aphrahat shared the common
Syriac tradition. For him Kepha is in fact another name of Jesus,
and Simon was given the right to share the name. The person who
receives somebody else's name also obtains the rights of the person
who bestows the name. Aphrahat makes the stone taken from Jordan
a type of Peter. He says Jesus son of Nun set up the stones for
a witness in Israel; Jesus our Saviour called Simon Kepha Sarirto
and set him as the faithful witness among nations.
Again he says in his commentary on Deuteronomy that Moses brought
forth water from "rock" (Kepha) for the people and Jesus
sent Simon Kepha to carry his teachings among nations. Our Lord
accepted him and made him the foundation of the Church and called
him Kepha. When he speaks about transfiguration of Christ he calls
him Simon Peter, the foundation of the Church. Ephrem also shared
the same view. In Armenian version of De Virginitate records Peter
the rock shunned honour Who was the head of the Apostles. In a mimro
of Efrem found in Holy Week Liturgy points to the importance of
Peter.
Both Aphrahat and Ephrem represent the authentic tradition of the
Syrian Church. The different orders of liturgies used for sanctification
of Church building, marriage, ordination etc. reveal that the primacy
of Peter is a part of living faith of the Church.
New Apostolic Church
The New Apostolic Church, who believes in the re-established Apostle
ministry, sees Peter as the first Chief Apostle.
Latter Day Saint movement
Bronze statue on the LDS Church's Temple
Square (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA)
depicting Peter, James, and John conferring the Melchizedek priesthood
in 1829 on Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church or
"Mormons") along with other sects of the Latter Day Saint
movement believe that Peter was the first leader of the early Christian
church, but reject papal succession. In interpreting Matthew 16:13-19
the LDS Church has stated, "The things of God are known only
by the power of his Spirit.", and "That which the world
calls Mormonism is based upon the rock of revelation", and
"And how could it be otherwise?" asked Elder Bruce R.
McConkie of the Council of the Twelve. In his April 1981 general
conference address, he identified the rock of which the Savior spoke
as the rock of revelation. "There is no other foundation upon
which the Lord could build His Church and kingdom. . . ."Revelation:
Pure, perfect, personal revelation - this is the rock! Latter-day
saints believe that Peter, James, and John came from heaven and
conferred the keys of the Melchizedek Priesthood upon Joseph Smith
and Oliver Cowdery in 1829, near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County,
Pennsylvania as part of the restoration of priesthood authority.
Islamic literature
Muslims accept Jesus as a prophet of Islam. The Qur'an also speaks
of Jesus's disciples but does not mention their names, instead referring
to them as "helpers to the prophet of God". Muslim exegesis
and Qur'an commentary, however, names them and includes Peter among
the disciples. An old tradition, which involves the legend of Habib
the Carpenter, mentions that Peter was one of the three disciples
sent to Antioch to preach to the people there.
Shia Muslims see a parallel in the figure of Peter to Ali at Muhammad's
time. They look upon Ali as being the vicegerent, with Muhammad
being the prophet; likewise, they see Peter as the vicegerent, behind
Jesus the prophet and Masih. Peter's role as the first proper leader
of the church is also seen by Shia's to be a parallel to their belief
in Ali as the first caliph after Muhammad.
Writings
Traditionally, two canonical epistles (1 and 2 Peter) and several
apocryphal works have been attributed to Peter.
New Testament
The New Testament includes two letters (epistles) ascribed to Peter.
Both demonstrate a high quality of cultured and urban Greek, at
odds with the linguistic skill that would ordinarily be expected
of an Aramaic-speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as
a second or third language. However, the author of the first epistle
explicitly claims to be using a secretary (see below), and this
explanation would allow for discrepancies in style without entailing
a different source. The textual features of these two epistles are
such that a majority of scholars doubt that they were written by
the same hand. This means at the most that Peter could not have
authored both, or at the least that he used a different secretary
for each letter. Some scholars argue that theological differences
imply different sources, and point to the lack of references to
2 Peter among the early Church Fathers.
Of the two epistles, the first epistle is considered the earlier.
A number of scholars have argued that the textual discrepancies
with what would be expected of the biblical Peter are due to it
having been written with the help of a secretary or as an amanuensis.
Indeed in the first epistle the use of a secretary is clearly described:
"By Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you, as I suppose, I
have written briefly, exhorting, and testifying that this is the
true grace of God wherein ye stand".[1 Pet. 5:12] Thus, in
regards to at least the first epistle, the claims that Peter would
have written Greek poorly seem irrelevant. The letter refers to
Roman persecution of Christians, apparently of an official nature.
The Roman historian Tacitus and the biographer Suetonius do both
record that Nero persecuted Christians, and Tacitus dates this to
immediately after the fire that burned Rome in 64. Christian tradition,
for example Eusebius of Caesarea(History book 2, 24.1), has maintained
that Peter was killed in Nero's persecution, and thus had to assume
that the Roman persecution alluded to in 1 Peter must be this Neronian
persecution. On the other hand, many modern scholars argue that
1 Peter refers to the persecution of Christians in Asia Minor during
the reign of the emperor Domitian (81–96), as the letter is explicitly
addressed to Jewish Christians from that region:
Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to God's elect, strangers
in the world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
Asia and Bithynia, who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge
of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit,
for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood: Grace
and peace be yours in abundance.
Those scholars who believe that the epistle dates from the time
of Domitian argue that Nero's persecution of Christians was confined
to the city of Rome itself, and did not extend to the Asian provinces
mentioned in 1 Pet 1:1-2.
The Second Epistle of Peter, on the other hand, appears to have
been copied, in part, from the Epistle of Jude, and some modern
scholars date its composition as late as c. 150. Some scholars argue
the opposite, that the Epistle of Jude copied 2 Peter, while others
contend an early date for Jude and thus observe that an early date
is not incompatible with the text. Many scholars have noted the
similarities between the apocryphal Second Epistle of Clement (2nd
century) and 2 Peter. Second Peter may be earlier than 150, there
are a few possible references to it that date back to the 1st century
or early 2nd century, e.g., 1 Clement written in c. AD 96, and the
later church historian Eusebius claimed that Origen had made reference
to the epistle before 250. Even in early times there was controversy
over its authorship, and 2 Peter was often not included in the Biblical
Canon; it was only in the 4th century that it gained a firm foothold
in the New Testament, in a series of synods. In the east the Syrian
Orthodox Church still did not admit it into the canon until the
6th century.
Traditionally, the Gospel of Mark was said to have been written
by a person named John Mark, and that this person was an assistant
to Peter, hence its content was traditionally seen as the closest
to Peter's viewpoint. According to Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History,
Papias recorded this belief from John the Presbyter:
Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down
accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact
order that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither
heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said,
he accompanied Peter, who accommodated his instructions to the
necessities [of his hearers], but with no intention of giving
a normal or chronological narrative of the Lord's sayings. Wherefore
Mark made no mistake in thus writing some things as he remembered
them. For of one thing he took especial care, not to omit anything
he had heard, and not to put anything fictional into the statements
Also Irenaeus wrote about this tradition:
After their (Peter and Paul's) passing, Mark also, the disciple
and interpreter of Peter, transmitted to us in writing the things
preached by Peter.
Based on these quotes, and on the Christian tradition, the information
in Mark's Gospel about St. Peter would be based on eyewitness material.
It should be noted, however, that some scholars (for differing reasons)
dispute the attribution of the Gospel of Mark to its traditional
author. The gospel itself is anonymous, and the above passages are
the oldest surviving written testimony to its authorship.
Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha
There are also a number of other apocryphal writings, not recognized
by the Church, that have been either attributed to or written about
St. Peter. They were from antiquity regarded as pseudepigrapha.
These include:
Gospel of Peter, a partially Docetic narrative that has survived
in part
- Acts of Peter
- Acts of Peter and Andrew
- Acts of Peter and Paul
- Acts of Peter and the Twelve
- Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter
- A Letter of Peter to Philip, which was preserved in the Nag
Hammadi library
- Apocalypse of Peter, which was considered as genuine by many
Christians as late as the 4th century
- The Epistula Petri, the introductory letter ascribed to Apostle
Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of
the Clementine literature
The key as symbol of St. Peter
Iconography
The earliest portrait of St. Peter dates back to the 4th century
and was located in 2010. In traditional iconography, Peter has been
shown very consistently since early Christian art as an oldish thick-set
man with a "slightly combative" face and a short beard,
and usually white hair, sometimes balding. He thus contrasts with
Saint Paul who is bald except at the sides, with a longer beard
and often black hair, and thinner in the face. One exception to
this is in Anglo-Saxon art, where he typically lacks a beard. Both
Peter and Paul are shown thus as early as the 4th century Catacombs
of Marcellinus and Peter in Rome. Later in the Middle Ages his attribute
is one or two large keys in his hand or hanging from his belt, first
seen in the early 8th century. More than many medieval attributes,
this continued to be depicted in the Renaissance and afterwards.
By the 15th century Peter is more likely to be bald on the top of
his head in the Western church, but he continues to have a good
head of hair in Orthodox icons.
The depiction of Saint Peter as literally the keeper of the gates
of heaven, popular with modern cartoonists (see next section) is
not found in traditional religious art, but Peter usually heads
groups of saints flanking God in heaven, on the right hand side
(viewer's left) of God. Narrative images of Peter include several
scenes from the Life of Christ where he is mentioned in the Gospels,
and he is often identifiable in scenes where his presence is not
specifically mentioned. Usually he stands nearest to Christ. In
particular, depictions of the Arrest of Christ usually include Peter
cutting off the ear of one of the soldiers. Scenes without Jesus
include his distinctive martyrdom, his rescue from prison, and sometimes
his trial. In the Counter-Reformation scenes of Peter hearing the
cock crow for the third time became popular, as a representation
of repentance and hence the Catholic sacrament of Confession or
Repentance.
Popular culture
Over the years "St. Peter" has evolved into a stock character
that is now widely used in jokes, cartoons, comedies, dramas, and
plays. Such caricatures almost all play upon Peter's role as the
"keeper of the keys of the kingdom of heaven" in Matthew
16:19, on the basis of which he is often depicted as an elderly,
bearded man who sits at the pearly gates that serve as heaven's
main entrance, often portrayed as a sort of hotel-style doorman
/ bouncer who personally interviews prospective entrants into Heaven,
often seated behind a desk, or standing at a lectern. He usually
has a big book in which the names of the saved are written. The
interjection; "For Pete's sake", a play on the "For
[insert name of revered figure] sake" snowclone, is believed
to be a reference to St. Peter.
Saint Peter medieval mosaic from Chora
Church
Patronage
Saint Peter is the patron saint of the following categories:
Workers |
- Bakers
- Bridge builders
- Butchers
- Fishermen
- Harvesters
|
- Cordwainers
- Life New Lifes
- Horologists
- Locksmiths
- Cobblers
|
- Masons
- Net makers
- Shipwrights
- Stationers
|
Called for aid in |
|
|
|
Institutions |
- The Papacy
- Bath Abbey
- Berchtesgaden Provostry
- Bishop Cotton Boys' School, Bangalore
|
- Exeter College, Oxford
- Universalist Church
|
- Peterhouse, Cambridge
- St Peter's College, Oxford
- St Peter's College, Auckland
- Saint Peter's College, New Jersey
- Saint Peter's School, York
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Churches and Cathedrals |
- The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter, Vatican City
- York Minster
- List of churches dedicated to St Peter
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Locations |
- Birżebbuġa
- Bremen
- Brgy. San Pedro, San Pablo City
- Worms
- Calatrava
- Chartres
- Chimbote
- Calbayog City
- Cologne
- Davao
- Dunajská Streda
- Hinton on the Green, Worcs, UK
- Ilovik i Sveti Petar
- Jackson
- Köpenick
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- Las Vegas
- Leuven
- Leiden
- Lessines
- Maralal
- Marquette
- Moissac
- Naumburg
- Obermarsberg
- Peterborough
- Philadelphia
- Poznań
- Providence
- Pubnico, Nova Scotia
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- Regensburg
- Rome
- Póvoa de Varzim
- Saint Petersburg
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon
- San Pedro, Laguna
- San Pedro Soloma
- Scranton
- Seixal Municipality
- Sunderland
- Sintra
- Sint-Pieters-Rode
- Tielt
- Toa Baja
- Trier
- Umbria
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Holy relics
Pope Vitalian sent filings from Apostle Peter's chains to Oswy,
King of Northumbria in the 7th century.
Peter's remains continue to be subject of investigation, but his
tomb is located under Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. This
was announced by Pope Pius XII on Christmas Day in 1950 after years
of painstaking research.
St Peter painted by Francesco del Cossa
Revisionist views
Many Protestant scholars accept the traditional story of Peter's
martyrdom in Rome. Some Protestants, however, have rejected Peter's
martyrdom as a later invention, arguing that evidence of Peter exists
only in Biblical accounts.
It has also been claimed that there was a serious division between
Peter's Jewish Christian party and Paul's Hellenizing party, seen
in e.g. the Incident at Antioch, which later Christian accounts
have downplayed.
Another revisionist view was developed by supporters of the Christ
myth theory, which holds that the figure of Peter is largely a development
from some mythological doorkeeper figures. According to Arthur Drews
and G. A. Wells, if there was a historical Peter, then all that
is known about him is the brief mentions in Galatians.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Peter
Re-published from TrueChristianity.info
in March 2013
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